Unit GENERAL AND SPECIAL VETERINARY PHISIOLOGY

VETERINARY ENDOCRINOLOGY

Code	GP001188
CFU	4
Teacher	Margherita Maranesi
Teachers	Margherita Maranesi
Hours	40 ore - Margherita Maranesi
Learning activities	Base
Area	Discipline della struttura e funzione degli organismi viventi
Sector	VET/02
Type of study-unit	Obbligatorio (Required)
Language of instruction	Italian
Contents	General endocrinology overview. Hormones. Organization of the endocrine system. Functions, principal endocrine glands mechanism of action and dysfunction: epiphyses, hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid glands, endocrine pancreas, adrenal gland, gonads, and placenta. Physiology of reproduction and lactation.
Reference texts	Reccomended: Fisiologia degli Animali Domestici; Authors: O.V. Sjaastad, O. Sand, K. Hove, Edizione Italiana; Casa Editrice Ambrosiana. Manuale di Fisiologia Veterinaria; Author: J.G. Cunnigham, Edizione Italiana; Antonio Delfino Editore. Optional: Fisiologia degli Animali Domestici con Elementi di Etologia; Authors: G. Aguggini, V. Beghelli, L.F. Giulio; UTET.
Educational objectives	D1 - KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING ABILITY - the bases for understanding the organization of the endocrine system (endocrine glands and diffuse endocrine system, classification of hormones, synthesis, secretion and transport, circadian rhythms); - the bases for understanding the interactions between the endocrine and nervous and immune systems; - the elements for the understanding of the main endocrine mechanisms that control large animal functions, such as regulation of glycaemia and metabolism, development and growth, water and mineral balance, reproduction and milk secretion, states of emergency and stress; - the elements to anticipate the effects due to "excess" or "defect" of specific hormones. D2 - ABILITY TO APPLY KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING - critically evaluate functional endocrine parameters and adaptation mechanisms; - identify the main causes capable of altering the normal functioning of the endocrine system; - the basis for understanding the pathophysiology and pathology of the endocrine system and their repercussions on general homeostasis. D3 - AUTONOMY OF JUDGMENT At the end of the training the student will be able to: - assess the presence of dysendocrinias in the animal; - assess the physiological status of the animal with respect to puberty, estrus cycles, pregnancy, lactation; D4 - COMMUNICATION SKILLS At the end of the training the student will be able to: - demonstrate language properties in both written and oral form, as well as the ability to use terminology that is sufficiently appropriate for a correct approach to the profession, which is also important for job interviews. D5 - LEARNING SKILLS At the end of the training the student will be able to: - consult and understand scientific texts, even innovative ones, bibliographic updates, so as to employ them in contexts not only usual for the profession, including research, but also originals, - possess a sufficiently broad mastery of the subject to guarantee an acceptable basis for continuing professional updating throughout life, through ongoing lifelong learning. Day-one competence ESVT SOP 2023: 1, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 17, 22, 23, 24, 32
Prerequisites
Teaching methods	Course organization: - lectures on all the main topics covered by the program; - journal club on endocrinology issues; -practical activities at the Livestock teaching center/clinic for reproductive physiology and endocrinology. Students will be divided into groups and will follow 2 tutorials, 4 hours and 2 hours respectively; - seminars on topics related to the course: principal hormone dysfunction in domestic animals, physiology of reproduction. The official course material can be downloaded from the Unistudium platform.
Other information
Learning verification modality	Refer to the methods of assessment of the learning of the teaching: General and Special Veterinary Physiology, Code: GP001135, https://www.unipg.it/didattica/corsi-di-laurea-e-laurea-magistrale/archivio/offerta-formativa-2024-25?view=elenco&idins=292953&idcorso=278&annoregolamento=2023&tab=INS Responsible: Prof. Silvana Diverio
Extended program	Theoretical lessons: Lesson 1: Course introduction. General Endocrinology. Hormones as specific chemical messengers. Endocrine, paracrine, and autocrine action. Hormones: chemistry, synthesis, secretion. Lesson 2: Hormones: transport, metabolism. Main receptors and second messengers. Lesson 3: Organization of the endocrine system and interaction with the S.N.C. Pituitary gland. Hypothalamus. Hypothalamic pituitary connections. Adenohypophysis. Neurohypophysis. Somatotropic hormone. Physiology of reproduction: Hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis. Sexual determinism and sexual differentiation. Lesson 4: Gonads. Physiology of puberty. Regulation of ovarian hormones secretion. Estrous cycle: general aspects and species-specific characteristics. Seasonal reproductive activity. Physiological hormonal control of the estrous cycle. Lesson 5: Follicular phase: Follicular wave and ovulation. The luteal phase: corpus luteum. Lesson 6: Luteolysis: peculiarity of species. Male reproductive system: hormonal regulation of the reproductive function. Gametogenesis, fertilization and embryo development. Lesson 7: The endocrinology of pregnancy and parturition deteminism. Placental hormones and maternal recognition of pregnancy. Postpartum. Physiology of lactation: mammary development and growth, lactogenesis, and galactopoiesis. Milk ejection. Endocrine control of lactation. Lesson 8: The thyroid. Lesson 9: Parathyroid glands and hormones regulating calcium and phosphate homeostasis (parathyroid hormone, vitamin D, and calcitonin. Lessons 10 – 11: The endocrine pancreas. Gastrointestinal hormones. Lesson 12: The adrenal glands. Adrenal cortex. Lesson 13: Mineralocorticoids. Renin-angiotensin system. Glucocorticoids. The adrenal medulla. For each endocrine gland, the main hormonal dysfunctions will also be treated. Practical lessons: Training at the Livestock Teaching Center/ clinic of reproductive physiology and endocrinology. Students will be divided into groups and will follow guided practices: 1) reproductive physiology and endocrinology training (4 h). Self-directed learning: 1) journal club on endocrinology themes (2 h).
Obiettivi Agenda 2030 per lo sviluppo sostenibile	Salute e benessere

VETERINARY PHISIOLOGY I

Code	A000603
CFU	6
Teacher	Gabriele Brecchia
Teachers	Gabriele Brecchia
Hours	60 ore - Gabriele Brecchia
Learning activities	Base
Area	Discipline della struttura e funzione degli organismi viventi
Sector	VET/02
Type of study-unit	Obbligatorio (Required)
Language of instruction	Italian
Contents	Introduction to Physiology: definition, scope, and importance of the study of vital functions. Homeostatic functions. Organization of body fluid compartments. Cell Physiology: ionic basis of excitability, structure and function of the neuron, generation and propagation of the action potential along nerve fibers. Synaptic Transmission: presynaptic and postsynaptic mechanisms, major neurotransmitters, and signal modulation. Nervous System: functional architecture and central and peripheral organization; autonomic nervous system. Somatic Nervous System: spinal cord, reflexes and muscle tone; segmental brain and cranial nerves; cerebellum; basal ganglia, thalamus, and cerebral hemispheres. Limbic System: regulation of behavior and emotions. Regulation of Wakefulness and Sleep: biological rhythms and sleep–wake cycles. Cerebral Cortex: control and regulation of higher nervous centers; physiology of cognition and behavioral interactions. Muscle Physiology: types of muscle tissue (skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle), neuromuscular junction, mechanisms of contraction, and mechanical properties. Sensory Receptors and Pathways: classification of sensory receptors, mapping of sensory pathways, and physiology of the major sensory systems. Thermoregulation: mechanisms of heat production and heat loss, behavioral and anatomical adaptations to thermal variations. Animal Communication: acoustic, visual, chemical, and tactile signals and their adaptive functions.
Reference texts	Sjaastad, O., Sand, O., & Hove, K. (2013). Physiology of Domestic Animals. Casa Editrice Ambrosiana. Aguggini, G., Beghelli, V., & Di Giulio, L.F. Physiology of Domestic Animals with Elements of Ethology. UTET. Cunningham, J.G. (2005). Textbook of Veterinary Physiology. Antonio Delfino Editore. Dukes, H.H. (2002). Dukes' Physiology of Domestic Animals. Idelson-Gnocchi, Naples. Sherwood, L., Klandorf, H., & Yancey, P. (2010). Animal Physiology: From Genes to Organisms. Zanichelli, Bologna.
Educational objectives	The course in Veterinary Physiology I aims to provide students with the knowledge and interpretative tools necessary to understand the mechanisms regulating the functions of the healthy animal organism, with particular emphasis on species of veterinary interest and on comparative physiology. At the end of the course, students will be able to: a) Knowledge and Understanding Describe the functional organization of the animal organism and the principal mechanisms of homeostatic regulation and adaptation. Understand the physiological principles underlying cellular excitability, analyze the action potential and the mechanisms of synaptic transmission in nerve cells, and explain neural integration processes. Distinguish the structural and functional characteristics of muscle fibers, describe the mechanisms of skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle contraction, and explain the functional relationships between the nervous and muscular systems. Illustrate the general organization of the central and peripheral nervous systems and the main functions of the different brain regions. Classify sensory receptor types, describe their role in stimulus transduction, map sensory neural pathways, and explain the physiological processes underlying sensory perception and pain. Describe the organization and function of motor pathways, motor neurons, and neural circuits involved in the control of posture, reflexes, and movement. b) Applying Knowledge and Understanding Identify and describe the mechanisms regulating animal body functions. Evaluate the homeostatic strategies adopted by animals. Explain the physiological mechanisms underlying the regulation of muscle function. Interpret the organization and interactions of the components of the central and peripheral nervous systems. Interpret physiological data and functional parameters obtained from laboratory activities. Relate physiological mechanisms to adaptive responses of the organism to changes in the internal and external environment. Apply physiological knowledge as a foundation for understanding pathological, pharmacological, nutritional, and clinical disciplines within the veterinary curriculum. Analyze and discuss simple cases involving normal physiological processes or alterations of homeostatic regulatory mechanisms. c) Making Judgements Independently identify intercellular and inter-tissue connections among organs and physiological systems. Critically evaluate experimental data and physiological observations. Distinguish physiological responses from pathological conditions based on an understanding of functional biological mechanisms. d) Learning Skills Integrate physiological knowledge with concepts acquired in basic and professional veterinary disciplines. Develop a physiological approach to study and scientific reasoning that supports subsequent coursework and lifelong professional learning. e) Expected Learning Outcomes Upon completion of the course, students will be able to explain the physiological mechanisms governing the major functions of the animal organism, interpret homeostatic regulatory processes in different species of veterinary interest, and apply this knowledge as a foundation for understanding disease pathogenesis, functional diagnostics, and the physiological basis of veterinary clinical practice.
Teaching methods	The course consists of both lectures and practical classes. Lectures are delivered in the classrooms of the Teaching Center of the Department of Veterinary Medicine. Theoretical topics are presented through lectures supported by slides and multimedia materials, with active student participation encouraged through questions and in-depth discussions. Group discussions, debates on case studies, and analyses of scientific articles will be used to stimulate critical thinking and the exchange of ideas. Each lecture and/or topic concludes with a summary of the key concepts covered. Practical classes are conducted in small groups (four groups with a maximum of 20 students each). Each practical session lasts two hours and takes place at the teaching farm and in the teaching laboratories of the Department. Additional learning activities include: Supervised learning sessions and in-depth study of selected course topics carried out in groups, involving literature research, preparation of PowerPoint presentations, oral presentation of the results, and classroom discussion. Seminars delivered by experts in fields relevant to the course content, providing students with exposure to current developments and applications of veterinary physiology.
Extended program	Lectures: 52 hours Course introduction. Concept of homeostasis. Cell Physiology: Principles of general cell physiology, body fluid compartments, and the forces regulating the movement of substances across biological membranes. (2 hours) Electrophysiology: Excitable tissues: nerve cells, skeletal and smooth muscle fibers, and myocardium; resting and action potentials. (2 hours) Electrophysiology: Bioelectrical phenomena of plasma membranes. Nervous tissue, excitability of nerve fibers, and impulse conduction. Synapses: synaptic and neuromuscular transmission. Neurotransmitters. (3 hours) Physiology of Excitable Tissues: Skeletal muscle tissue, neuromuscular transmission. Electrical excitation and contractile response. Single twitch and tetanus. Basic concepts of biomechanics. (3 hours) Physiology of Excitable Tissues: Smooth muscle tissue. Mechanical and electrophysiological properties, neural and humoral control. (4 hours) Physiology of Excitable Tissues: Cardiac muscle tissue. Cardiac innervation, conduction system, and cardiac electrophysiology. (4 hours) Nervous System Physiology: The somatic nervous system: evolution and functional organization. The blood–brain barrier. (4 hours) Sensory Physiology: Sense organs and receptors: classification and sensory information coding. Role of neurotransmitters and their modulation within the nervous system. (5 hours) Nervous System Physiology: The autonomic nervous system: sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions; similarities and differences between autonomic and somatic reflex arcs. Neurochemical transmission. (5 hours) Nervous System Physiology: Conductive and trophic functions of the spinal cord. Ascending and descending pathways. (4 hours) Sensory Physiology: Coding of sensory information: pain perception. (2 hours) Nervous System Physiology: Reflex functions of the spinal cord. (4 hours) Nervous System Physiology: Brainstem and cranial nerves, with implications for the neurological examination. Cerebellum and its relationships with the segmental nervous system. (3 hours) Nervous System Physiology: Basal ganglia. Regulation of balance, voluntary and involuntary movement. Thalamus and cerebral hemispheres. (3 hours) Nervous System Physiology: The hypothalamus as the homeostatic center of the organism. The limbic system: regulation of behavior and emotions. (2 hours) Nervous System Physiology: Regulation of wakefulness and sleep; biological rhythms. Sensory physiology (taste, smell, hearing, balance, and vision) and sensory capabilities in animal species of zootechnical and companion-animal interest. (3 hours) Nervous System Physiology: Primary and secondary cerebral cortex. Cerebral cortex and its role in the control and regulation of higher centers. Association areas. (2 hours) Practical Classes: 8 hours Practical session at the teaching farm: behavioral assessment in different animal species. (2 hours) Practical session: neurological examination. (2 hours) Supervised practical: advanced study of thermoregulatory mechanisms in different animal species. (2 hours) Supervised group work on course topics, presentation of results, and discussion. (2 hours) The supervised activity involves small-group work on questions and short case studies related to the topics covered in the course. Students will be required to apply the knowledge acquired to analyze the proposed problems and provide reasoned answers concerning the main physiological processes discussed. Each group will present its solutions to the class, followed by a guided discussion aimed at comparing and further deepening the concepts. The activity is designed to develop the ability to apply knowledge, critical thinking, and scientific communication skills.

VETERINARY PHYSIOLOGY II

Code	A000602
CFU	3
Teacher	Gabriele Brecchia
Teachers	Gabriele Brecchia
Hours	30 ore - Gabriele Brecchia
Learning activities	Base
Area	Discipline della struttura e funzione degli organismi viventi
Sector	VET/02
Type of study-unit	Obbligatorio (Required)
Language of instruction	Italian
Contents	Composition and functions of blood. Plasma and cellular components. Hematopoiesis and regulation of blood cell production. Erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets: structure, function, and physiological significance. Hemostasis and blood coagulation mechanisms. Blood groups and transfusion physiology. Role of blood in the transport of respiratory gases, nutrients, hormones, and metabolic waste products. Blood as a regulator of acid-base balance, osmotic pressure, and immune defense. Structure and function of the heart. Cardiac muscle physiology and the cardiac cycle. Electrical activity of the heart, impulse generation and conduction system. Cardiac output and its regulation. Neural and endocrine control of cardiovascular function. Principles of hemodynamics and determinants of blood flow. Functional organization of the arterial, capillary, and venous systems. Microcirculation and capillary exchange mechanisms. Regulation of peripheral circulation and arterial pressure. Cardiovascular adaptations to exercise, environmental challenges, and physiological states in species of veterinary interest. Functional anatomy of the respiratory system. Mechanics of breathing and pulmonary ventilation. Lung volumes and capacities. Pulmonary circulation and the relationships between ventilation and perfusion. Alveolar gas exchange and diffusion mechanisms. Transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide in blood. Regulation of acid-base balance through respiratory function. Neural and chemical control of breathing. Physiological adaptations of the respiratory system in different domestic animal species and responses to exercise and environmental changes.
Reference texts	1. Sjaastad, O., Sand, O., & Hove, K. (2013). Physiology of Domestic Animals. Casa Editrice Ambrosiana. 2. Aguggini, G., Beghelli, V., & Di Giulio, L.F. Physiology of Domestic Animals with Elements of Ethology. UTET. 3. Cunningham, J.G. (2005). Textbook of Veterinary Physiology. Antonio Delfino Editore. 4. Dukes, H.H. (2002). Dukes' Physiology of Domestic Animals. Idelson-Gnocchi, Naples. 5. Sherwood, L., Klandorf, H., & Yancey, P. (2010). Animal Physiology: From Genes to Organisms. Zanichelli, Bologna.
Educational objectives	The main objective of this module is to provide students with a sound knowledge of the physiology of domestic animals, with particular emphasis on the general principles and regulatory mechanisms governing the functions of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems, which act in an integrated manner to maintain body homeostasis. At the end of the course, students will be able to: a) Knowledge and Understanding Upon successful completion of the course, students will be able to: • Describe the anatomical and functional organization of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems in domestic animals. • Explain the physiological mechanisms underlying cardiac function, including cardiac excitability, conduction, contractility, and regulation of cardiac output. • Describe the principles governing blood circulation, vascular function, blood pressure regulation, and tissue perfusion. • Explain the mechanisms involved in the regulation of cardiovascular function by neural, hormonal, and local factors. • Describe the structure and function of the respiratory system and the mechanics of breathing. • Explain the processes of pulmonary ventilation, gas exchange, transport of respiratory gases in the blood, and tissue respiration. • Understand the neural and chemical mechanisms regulating respiration and their integration with cardiovascular control. • Explain the physiological responses of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems to exercise, environmental challenges, and stress. • Describe the integrated role of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems in maintaining homeostasis. • Understand species-specific physiological adaptations of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems in domestic and companion animals. • Interpret physiological parameters commonly used to assess cardiovascular and respiratory function in veterinary practice. • Demonstrate knowledge of the physiological basis underlying common clinical and diagnostic procedures related to cardiovascular and respiratory function. • Understand the composition and functions of blood, with particular reference to blood cells, plasma, and the main mechanisms involved in the maintenance of homeostasis. • Explain the physiological processes of hemostasis, blood coagulation, and fibrinolysis. b) Applying Knowledge and Understanding Upon successful completion of the course, students will be able to: • Apply knowledge of blood physiology and of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems to interpret the main physiological processes involved in the maintenance of homeostasis. • Relate physiological mechanisms to functional responses observed in domestic and companion animal species. • Interpret the principal hematological, cardiovascular, and respiratory parameters used in veterinary practice and in the assessment of animal physiological status. • Analyze and discuss physiological data obtained from practical activities, laboratory exercises, or case studies concerning cardiovascular and respiratory function. • Use appropriate scientific and physiological terminology when describing and interpreting biological processes. • Recognize the major adaptive responses of blood and of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems to different physiological conditions, including exercise, stress, and environmental challenges. • Apply principles of cardiovascular and respiratory physiology to understand the functional basis of common veterinary diagnostic procedures. • Integrate knowledge of blood, circulation, and respiration to explain the coordinated functioning of the systems involved in the transport of gases, nutrients, and metabolites. • Critically evaluate physiological information, experimental data, and observational findings, providing interpretations consistent with the physiological mechanisms studied. • Communicate and discuss scientific topics related to hematological, cardiovascular, and respiratory physiology using appropriate technical terminology. c) Making Judgements Upon successful completion of the course, students will be able to: • Critically evaluate physiological information related to blood, cardiovascular, and respiratory function, distinguishing established scientific evidence from unsupported interpretations. • Analyze and interpret physiological data and observations, drawing conclusions consistent with the principles governing the maintenance of homeostasis. • Assess the functional significance of variations in hematological, cardiovascular, and respiratory parameters in different physiological conditions. • Integrate information derived from different physiological systems to formulate coherent interpretations of the mechanisms underlying whole-body function. • Evaluate the physiological responses of domestic animals to environmental, behavioral, and management-related factors. • Identify the physiological basis of adaptive and compensatory mechanisms involved in the regulation of blood, cardiovascular, and respiratory functions. • Formulate reasoned judgments on physiological issues using appropriate scientific methods and terminology. d) Learning Skills Upon successful completion of the course, students will be able to: • Acquire, organize, and consolidate knowledge of blood physiology and the cardiovascular and respiratory systems through independent study of the recommended learning materials. • Effectively use the physiological concepts and principles acquired during the course as a foundation for further study in subsequent veterinary science disciplines. • Independently update and expand their knowledge through the critical consultation of scientific literature and other reliable sources of information. • Integrate knowledge acquired in different areas of animal physiology, developing a comprehensive understanding of the mechanisms regulating body function. • Identify gaps in their own knowledge and plan appropriate strategies for further learning and in-depth study. • Correctly use scientific language and specialized terminology as tools for lifelong learning and professional development. • Transfer the physiological knowledge acquired to new learning contexts, facilitating the study of related preclinical and clinical disciplines. • Develop an independent and critical approach to learning, which is essential for continuing education and professional growth in the field of veterinary sciences. e) Expected Learning Outcomes Upon successful completion of the course, students will have acquired an integrated understanding of the physiology of blood and of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems in domestic animals, including their functional organization, major regulatory mechanisms, and role in maintaining homeostasis. Students will be able to describe and interpret the physiological processes underlying cardiovascular function, pulmonary ventilation, gas exchange, and the transport of substances in the blood, as well as understand the interactions among these systems. They will be able to apply the knowledge acquired to the interpretation of the main physiological parameters, use appropriate scientific terminology, and relate the concepts learned to subsequent preclinical and clinical disciplines within the veterinary curriculum. In addition, students will have developed critical thinking skills and an autonomous approach to learning, supporting the continued study of physiological topics in veterinary science.
Teaching methods	The course consists of both lectures and practical classes. • Lectures are delivered in the classrooms of the Teaching Center of the Department of Veterinary Medicine. Theoretical topics are presented through lectures supported by slides and multimedia materials, with active student participation encouraged through questions and in-depth discussions. Group discussions, debates on case studies, and analyses of scientific articles will be used to stimulate critical thinking and the exchange of ideas. Each lecture and/or topic concludes with a summary of the key concepts covered. • Practical classes are conducted in small groups (four groups with a maximum of 20 students each). Each practical session lasts two hours and takes place at the teaching farm and in the teaching laboratories of the Department. Additional learning activities include: 1. Supervised learning sessions and in-depth study of selected course topics carried out in groups, involving literature research, preparation of PowerPoint presentations, oral presentation of the results, and classroom discussion. 2. Seminars delivered by experts in fields relevant to the course content, providing students with exposure to current developments and applications of veterinary physiology.
Extended program	Lectures: 26 hours The course provides the physiological foundations of blood, the cardiovascular system, and the respiratory system in domestic animals, with particular emphasis on the regulatory mechanisms responsible for maintaining homeostasis and on the functional integration among these systems. Introduction to the Course and Review of Homeostasis (1 hour): Concept of homeostasis and physiological regulation. Integrated role of blood, the cardiovascular system, and the respiratory system in maintaining the internal environment. Principles of neural, endocrine, and local control of physiological functions. Blood Physiology (4 hours): Composition and properties of blood. Plasma and cellular components. Erythrocytes: structure, functions, and role in respiratory gas transport. Leukocytes and their functional significance. Platelets and their role in hemostasis. Hematocrit and major hematological parameters. Hematopoiesis and its regulation. Primary and secondary hemostasis, blood coagulation, and fibrinolysis. Blood groups and principles of transfusion medicine in domestic animals. Cardiac Physiology (6 hours): Functional organization of the heart. Properties of the myocardium: excitability, conductivity, contractility, and automaticity. Cardiac conduction system. Cardiac cycle and its phases. Cardiac output and the factors affecting it. Intrinsic and extrinsic regulation of cardiac function. Sympathetic and parasympathetic innervation of the heart. Electrocardiography: physiological principles and interpretation of the main waves and intervals. Circulatory Physiology (6 hours): Principles of hemodynamics. Blood flow, pressure, and vascular resistance. Functional properties of arteries, arterioles, capillaries, and veins. Microcirculation and capillary exchange mechanisms. Short- and long-term regulation of arterial blood pressure. Cardiovascular reflexes. Neural, endocrine, and local regulation of the circulation. Distribution of cardiac output among different body districts. Cardiovascular adaptations during exercise, stress, and thermoregulation. Respiratory Physiology (5 hours): Functional organization of the respiratory system. Respiratory mechanics: inspiration and expiration. Lung volumes and capacities. Alveolar ventilation and distribution of ventilation. Pulmonary perfusion and ventilation/perfusion relationships. Gas diffusion across the alveolar-capillary membrane. Transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide in blood. Role of hemoglobin and factors influencing oxygen dissociation. Neural and chemical regulation of respiration. Chemoreceptors and respiratory centers. Respiratory responses to exercise, hypoxia, and environmental changes. Functional Integration of Blood, Cardiovascular, and Respiratory Systems (2 hours): Transport of respiratory gases and maintenance of tissue oxygenation. Acid-base balance and the integrated role of blood, lungs, and the cardiovascular system. Physiological adaptations to exercise, environmental challenges, and different physiological conditions in species of veterinary interest. Relevant species-specific physiological differences in livestock and companion animals. Practical Classes: 4 hours Practical Session at the Teaching Farm (2 hours): Assessment of cardiovascular and respiratory functions in different animal species. Measurement and interpretation of physiological parameters, including heart rate, respiratory rate, pulse characteristics, and clinical indicators of cardiorespiratory function. Practical Activity in lab (2 hours): Preparation, staining, and microscopic examination of a blood smear. Identification and evaluation of the main blood cell types and interpretation of basic hematological features.

VETERINARY PHYSIOLOGY

Code	A000601
CFU	3
Teacher	Gabriele Brecchia
Teachers	Gabriele Brecchia
Hours	30 ore - Gabriele Brecchia
Learning activities	Base
Area	Discipline della struttura e funzione degli organismi viventi
Sector	VET/02
Type of study-unit	Obbligatorio (Required)
Language of instruction	Italian
Contents	The course provides an integrated understanding of the physiology of the digestive and urinary systems in domestic animals, with particular emphasis on the regulatory mechanisms that ensure the maintenance of energy, water, electrolyte, and acid–base homeostasis. The course covers the general principles of gastrointestinal physiology, including gastrointestinal motility, digestive secretions, and the neural, hormonal, and local mechanisms regulating digestive function. The processes of digestion and absorption of nutrients, including carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins, are examined, together with species-specific differences between monogastric and polygastric animals and the functional role of the intestinal microbiota. The physiology of the liver is also addressed as a central organ in metabolism and homeostatic regulation, with emphasis on nutrient metabolism and detoxification processes and pancreas for its effects in the digestive process. Regarding the urinary system, the functional organization of the nephron and the processes involved in urine formation are studied, including glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, and secretion. Mechanisms of urine concentration and dilution, as well as key indicators of renal function, are also analyzed. Special attention is given to the regulation of water, electrolyte, and acid–base balance, including the hormonal systems involved such as ADH, aldosterone, and the renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system. Finally, the course highlights the integrated role of the digestive and urinary systems in maintaining homeostasis, with reference to physiological adaptations to diet, hydration status, and environmental conditions across different animal species.
Reference texts	1. Sjaastad, O., Sand, O., & Hove, K. (2013). Physiology of Domestic Animals. Casa Editrice Ambrosiana. 2. Aguggini, G., Beghelli, V., & Di Giulio, L.F. Physiology of Domestic Animals with Elements of Ethology. UTET. 3. Cunningham, J.G. (2005). Textbook of Veterinary Physiology. Antonio Delfino Editore. 4. Dukes, H.H. (2002). Dukes' Physiology of Domestic Animals. Idelson-Gnocchi, Naples. 5. Sherwood, L., Klandorf, H., & Yancey, P. (2010). Animal Physiology: From Genes to Organisms. Zanichelli, Bologna.
Educational objectives	The overall aim of the course is to provide students with an integrated knowledge of the physiology of the digestive and urinary systems in domestic animals, with particular emphasis on the regulatory mechanisms responsible for maintaining body homeostasis. The course is designed to develop an understanding of digestion, absorption, metabolism, and excretion, as well as renal function and the main neural, endocrine, and local control pathways that regulate these processes. By the end of the course, students will be able to understand the coordinated functioning of the digestive and urinary systems and their role in maintaining energy, water, electrolyte, and acid–base balance, while also developing a critical and independent approach to the study of physiological processes. a) Knowledge and Understanding Upon successful completion of the course, students will be able to: • Know the functional organization of the digestive and urinary systems in domestic animals. • Understand the main physiological mechanisms of digestion and nutrient absorption. • Know the processes of gastrointestinal motility and secretion and their neural, endocrine, and local regulation. • Understand the role of the liver in metabolic processes and homeostasis maintenance. • Know the exocrine and endocrine functions of the pancreas in digestion and metabolic regulation. • Know the functional organization of the kidney and the mechanisms of urine formation. • Understand the processes of glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, and secretion. • Know the mechanisms regulating water, electrolyte, and acid–base balance. • Understand the integrated role of the digestive and urinary systems in maintaining homeostasis. • Know the main physiological differences between monogastric and polygastric species. b) Applying Knowledge and Understanding Upon successful completion of the course, students will be able to: • Apply knowledge of digestive physiology to interpret the main processes of digestion, absorption, and nutrient utilization. • Interpret the functional role of the liver and pancreas in digestive and metabolic processes. • Use knowledge of renal physiology to understand urine formation and excretory function regulation mechanisms. • Analyze changes in key physiological parameters related to digestive and urinary function under different physiological conditions. • Relate neural, endocrine, and local regulatory mechanisms to the functional responses of involved organs. • Integrate knowledge of the digestive and urinary systems to interpret mechanisms maintaining water, electrolyte, and acid–base balance. • Interpret physiological differences between monogastric and polygastric species in relation to digestive and metabolic function. • Use appropriate scientific terminology to describe physiological processes. • Apply acquired knowledge to the analysis of basic physiological data and simple case studies. c) Making Judgements Upon successful completion of the course, students will be able to: • Critically evaluate information and data related to digestive and urinary physiology, distinguishing established scientific evidence from unsupported interpretations. • Interpret the functional significance of changes in key physiological parameters under different nutritional, environmental, and physiological conditions. • Integrate information from the digestive and urinary systems to formulate coherent assessments of homeostasis maintenance. • Recognize adaptive and compensatory mechanisms involved in the regulation of water, electrolyte, acid–base, and metabolic balance. • Formulate reasoned judgments on physiological processes using a scientific approach and appropriate terminology. d) Learning Skills Upon successful completion of the course, students will be able to: • Develop independent study skills in understanding the physiology of the digestive and urinary systems using textbooks, teaching materials, and basic scientific sources. • Independently organize and integrate acquired knowledge, building a coherent and systemic understanding of physiological processes. • Use the acquired foundational knowledge as a basis for further learning in subsequent veterinary science disciplines. • Use scientific language correctly as a tool for continuous learning and knowledge consolidation. e) Expected Learning Outcomes Upon completion of the course, students will have acquired an integrated understanding of the physiology of the digestive and urinary systems in domestic animals and will be able to describe and interpret their main functional processes, including digestion, absorption, metabolism, and excretion. They will also be able to explain the regulatory mechanisms controlling these functions and recognize the role of the studied systems in maintaining homeostasis, with particular reference to energy, water, electrolyte, and acid–base balance. Students will be able to apply the acquired knowledge to the interpretation of key physiological phenomena and functional parameters using appropriate scientific terminology. They will be able to critically connect different organ functions, recognizing the interactions among the digestive system, liver, pancreas, and kidneys, and understanding physiological differences among major veterinary species. Finally, they will have developed autonomous learning and critical analysis skills useful for further studies in preclinical and clinical disciplines.
Teaching methods	The course consists of both lectures and practical classes. • Lectures are delivered in the classrooms of the Teaching Center of the Department of Veterinary Medicine. Theoretical topics are presented through lectures supported by slides and multimedia materials, with active student participation encouraged through questions and in-depth discussions. Group discussions, debates on case studies, and analyses of scientific articles will be used to stimulate critical thinking and the exchange of ideas. Each lecture and/or topic concludes with a summary of the key concepts covered. • Practical classes are conducted in small groups (four groups with a maximum of 20 students each). Each practical session lasts two hours and takes place at the teaching farm and in the teaching laboratories of the Department. Additional learning activities include: i) Supervised learning sessions and in-depth study of selected course topics carried out in groups, involving literature research, preparation of PowerPoint presentations, oral presentation of the results, and classroom discussion, ii) Seminars delivered by experts in fields relevant to the course content, providing students with exposure to current developments and applications of veterinary physiology.
Extended program	Lectures: 26 hours The course provides an integrated understanding of the physiology of the digestive and urinary systems in domestic animals, with particular emphasis on the mechanisms of digestion, absorption, metabolism, and excretion, as well as the neural, endocrine, and local regulatory systems controlling their function. Special focus is placed on the coordinated role of these systems in maintaining body homeostasis. Introduction to integrated physiology (2 hours): Concept of homeostasis and functional organization of the digestive and urinary systems. General principles of physiological regulation and system integration. Role of the liver and pancreas in major digestive and metabolic processes. Introduction to endocrine systems involved in the control of internal balance. Physiology of the digestive system: motility and secretions (6 hours): Functional organization of the gastrointestinal tract in domestic animals. Gastrointestinal motility: principles of smooth muscle contraction and neural and endocrine control. Digestive secretions: salivary, gastric, pancreatic, and biliary secretions. Role of the exocrine pancreas in the secretion of digestive enzymes and regulation of intraluminal digestion. Digestion and nutrient absorption (6 hours): Digestion of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins. Intestinal absorption processes and epithelial transport mechanisms. Role of the intestinal microbiota in digestive processes. Physiological differences between monogastric and polygastric species and functional adaptations. Physiology of the liver and metabolism (3 hours): Metabolic functions of the liver. Carbohydrate, lipid, and protein metabolism. Detoxification functions and metabolic homeostasis. Portal circulation and integration with intestinal absorption. Role of the liver in maintaining energy balance. Physiology of the pancreas (2 hours): Functional organization of the exocrine and endocrine pancreas. Role of the exocrine pancreas in the secretion of digestive enzymes and bicarbonate. Endocrine function: insulin, glucagon, and regulation of blood glucose levels. Integration of pancreatic function in the control of metabolism and digestion. Physiology of the kidney and urine formation (5 hours): Functional organization of the nephron. Glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, and secretion processes. Mechanisms of urine formation, concentration, and dilution. Regulation of renal function and control of glomerular filtration rate. Regulation of water, electrolyte, and acid–base balance (3 hours): Mechanisms regulating osmolarity and body fluid volume. Renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system, ADH, and hormonal control of water balance. Principles of acid–base balance and the role of the kidney in pH regulation. Functional integration between the digestive and urinary systems (1 hour): Integration of digestion, absorption, metabolism, and excretion. Coordination among the intestine, liver, pancreas, and kidney in maintaining homeostasis. Physiological adaptations to diet, hydration, and environmental conditions across different animal species. Practical Classes: 4 hours Practical Session at the Teaching Farm (2 hours): Evaluation of digestive and urinary functions in different animal species. Measurement and interpretation of key physiological parameters, including salivary secretion, mastication, rumination, eructation, ruminal and intestinal motility, defecation and urination, as well as clinical indicators of digestive and urinary function. Supervised (2 hours): The supervised activity involves small-group work on questions and short case studies related to the physiology of the digestive and urinary systems in domestic animals. Students will be required to apply the knowledge acquired during the course to analyze the proposed problems and provide reasoned answers on key physiological processes (gastrointestinal motility, digestion and absorption, secretions, defecation, urination, and renal function). Each group will present its solutions to the class, followed by a guided discussion aimed at comparison and further clarification of the main concepts. The activity is intended to develop the ability to apply knowledge, critical thinking, and scientific communication skills.